Chapter 4 APA Style: Critical Considerations
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Chapter Status: Under Review
There are many excellent resources for learning APA Style. This chapter is not one of them. Rather, the intent of this chapter is to locate APA Style within health services psychology. In-so-doing, we hope to convey why it is valued and how adherence to the guidelines presented in the style manual can facilitate an effective and efficient transmission of ideas, information, and scientific findings. Simultaneously, we critically examine APA Style and question whether and how unquestioned allegiance to it may contribute to exclusion and oppression. While we do not teach APA style, we review the journal article reporting standards (JARS) by comparing the recommendations to a recently published article. We also provide an overview of the sometimes surprising topics that are covered in the Style Manual.
4.1 Learning Objectives
Learning objectives from this lecture include the following:
- List and define three cultural characteristics or values reflected in APA style.
- Identify two ways that Thompson (2004) has suggested that APA style perpetuates Whiteness and patriarchy in the academy.
- Describe how adherence to the JARS facilitates effective and efficient transmission of information.
- Evaluate a manuscript for JARS.
4.2 Readings & Resources
In preparing this chapter, we drew heavily from the following resource(s). Other resources are cited (when possible, linked) in the text with complete citations in the reference list.
- American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association: The official guide to APA style. (Seventh edition.). American Psychological Association.
- This resource is essential for writing many types of papers within the discipline of psychology. Not only does it provide instruction on reference lists, but it also also provides guidance on how to write effectively, how to reduce bias in language, and how to structure research papers in ways that convey information efficiently and effectively.
- Madigan, R., Johnson, S., & Linton, P. (1995). The language of psychology: APA style as epistemology. American Psychologist, 50(6), 428–436. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.50.6.428
- Madigan et al. (1995) argued that as we learn APA style we are inculcating the professional values of our discipline (and we do this without awareness).
- Thompson, A. (2004). Gentlemanly Orthodoxy: Critical Race Feminism, Whiteness Theory, and the APA Manual. Educational Theory, 54(1), 27–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0013-2004.2004.00002.x
- Critiquing the 5th edition of the style manual (at the time of this writing we are using the 7th Edition). Thompson (2004) pointed out how aspects of APA style contribute to preserving Whiteness.
- White Supremacy Culture. (n.d.). DRworksBook. Retrieved August 8, 2020, from https://www.dismantlingracism.org/white-supremacy-culture.html
- Identifies characteristics of White Supremacy Culture in organizations (often used to describe academia).
- Huang, Y.-T., & Chan, R. C. H. (2022). Effects of sexual orientation concealment on well-being among sexual minorities: How and when does concealment hurt? Journal of Counseling Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000623
- We use this article as a tool for understanding where and how the JARS requirements are implemented into a research article.
4.3 Abbreviations in this Chapter
In this chapter on APA Style we use three abbreviations. Because each is represents a larger, proper title, we are capitalizing them as if they were proper nouns:
- The “Style Manual” refers, generally, to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (all editions) and the cultural expectation of using its conventions.
- The “7th Edition” refers to the most recent edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (American Psychological Association, 2020).
- “APA Style” refers more broadly to the culture and use of the Style Manual.
4.4 The Culture of APA Style
The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association has grown from its 7-page writers guide in the Psychological Bulletin (1929) to 427 in the 7th Edition (American Psychological Association, 2020). Many who use the Style Manual are looking up guidelines for formatting parts of a paper that requires APA style, locating examples of resources to learn how to provide accurate citations, or consulting the journal article reporting standards (JARS) to learn what information is required in an empirical manuscript. Madigan et al. (1995) has suggested that within the individual who seeks to master APA Style and across the near-century that of Style Manual’s existence, the Style Manual has served an epistemological function. That is, through learning and practicing the guidelines, it has instilled attitudes and values, many of which are unarticulated and operate outside of our explicit awareness.
4.4.1 APA Style as Epistemology
Madigan (1995) and colleagues compared APA style to that of other disciplines (e.g., history, literary criticism) and identified characteristics that uniquely define our writing. First, we use a story schema that consists of a prescribed introduction, method, results, and discussion. On the face of it, this seems straightforward – even linear. However research is messy and this messiness may not be reflected well (or at all) in the final paper. Within this story arc, readers and reviewers who are familiar with APA Style can expect to see a (a) review of past empirical studies, (b) collection and analysis of new data, and (c) connections between conclusions and psychological theory.
A second characteristic is the depersonalized language of disagreement that focuses on the method, analyses, and conclusions and not on the investigators as individuals (Madigan et al., 1995). An example might be a statement like, “The relatively small sample likely contributed to Type I error.” Madigan and colleagues suggested that a goal of psychological science is a collaborative, cumulative endeavor based on research data that avoids animosity and confrontation and that the culture of APA style facilitates this conveyance. Related to this is the use of hedged conclusions. Hedged words like “tend,” “suggest,” and “may” are abundant in our writing. Further, we almost always claim that “more research is needed” before we can assert firm conclusions.
APA Style involves other people (Madigan et al., 1995). Our papers are more likely to have multiple authors (than single authors). In fact, the 7th Edition instructs writers to list, by name, up to 20 authors in a reference list entry (when there are 21 or more, an elipses follows the first 19 and then lists the last author). This is an increase from prior editions and serves something of permission to extend authorship to those who contributed to the project.
Relatedly, our introduction and discussion sections include abundant citations that locate the research within a proximal body of literature. Rather than footnotes or endnotes, we use in-text references that include the last names of authors; this provides immediate information about the “who” of the research.
Madigan (1995) and colleagues also documented distinct writing conventions that define the culture of our writing. For example, we tend to use headings and subheadings rather than narrative transitions; we are more likely to paraphrase than use direct quotes; and we use self-effacing and low-profile language that “does not call attention to itself.” These approaches maintain the focus on the topic of the paper and not the personhood of the author.
4.4.2 APA Style, Whiteness, and Patriarchy
Nearly a decade after Madigan et al.’s paper (1995), Thompson (2004) examined APA style (i.e., the 5th edition) through the lens of critical race feminism and Whiteness Theory and argued that the expectations regarding clarity, precision, appropriateness, sensitivity, and objectivity likely contribute to the academy’s investments in Whiteness and patriarchy. Thompson’s analysis of power and property investments was organized into five themes that continue to be relevant for the 7th Edition.
The first theme is property rights. Predominantly White institutions (PWIs) have treated refereed scholarship as intellectual property, demarcated with a certain, privileged status. That is, individuals “own knowledge.” Thompson (2004) cited evidence for this in the conventions of:
- Using last names as a shorthand reference for work (e.g., “Thompson’s [1995] ctitique of APA style”).
- Citing one’s own work (e.g., “Bikos [2021] has argued…) rather than writing, “When I previously claimed…”
- Using et al. for in-text citations when articles have three or more authors.
- Ordering authorship on the basis of relative contribution and not professional position, power, or hierarchy (see section 1.22 in the 7th Edition). Thompson (2004) also suggested that power dynamics (especially around race and gender) likely interferes with adherence to this principle.
Thompson’s (2004) concern about the proprietariness of knowledge for individuals is that it provides no recognition for the communities from where the the knowledge was gathered. After all, where is stylistic guidance for citing community or institutional knowledge? For example, data can be obtained from and about the Black Church, but there is no guidance from the Style Manual on how to cite such knowledge. There is only guidance on citing others who have also written about it.
A second theme is precedent and pedigree. Our disciplinary commitment to the notion that knowledge is cumulative is reflected in voluminous citations of relevant earlier works. These include citations of the gurus, citations of statements that may seem obvious, and self-citations. Including these citations in the introductory sections of a research paper locates the proposed study within a body of knowledge and provides the requisite justification for its inclusion within the lineage of the research topic. This practice disadvantages novel ideas and excludes ideas and projects that would challenge existing power structures.
Proceduralism, the third theme, refers to the constriction of communication via the standardized format and style (Thompson, 2004). Regarding format, Thompson suggested that the Introduction, Method, Results and Discussion sections may be insufficient to capture the lived experiences of marginalized and oppressed groups. Regarding stylistic conventions, the Style Manual’s prescriptions for elegant writing and unambiguous clarity may not work for all groups, especially when information does not fit well into clean categories. The standardization of the et al. convention contributes to both gender- and color-blindness. On one hand, it is “fair.” On the other hand, the use of the first author’s surname obscures their identity and the identities of coauthors. Finally, APA Style discourages footnotes. We agree with Thompson’s claim that the most juicy arguments are always in the footnotes.
Following professional protocol means avoiding extremes and blending in. In this fourth theme, Thompson (2004) notes that when one adheres to the protocol, they signal a recognition of the prevailing relations of power, authority, and legitimacy. The 7th Edition expanded what was previously a recommendation to avoid using insensitive and pejorative language, to an entire chapter on bias-free language. We agree with Thompson’s pre-7th Edition clasim – that such recommendations are admirable, but they do not address unequal power relations. Further, distinctions between what is insensitive and pejorative may be undetectable to those who hold privilege.
The fifth theme was the notion of a gentleman’s agreement; that is, a “language that conveys professionalism and formality” where “differences should be presented in a professional and noncombative manner” (7th Edition, section 4.7). Thompson (2004) is concerned that while this is offered with the hope of pluralism and the creation of safe spaces, it causes controversies to be ignored or dismissed and may bolster complicity in racism.
4.4.3 APA Style and White Supremacy Culture
For more than 20 years, Tema Okun (Okun, 2021; “White Supremacy Culture,” n.d.) and colleagues have curated a list of characteristics of White supremacy culture. The Centre for Community Organizations has prepared a handout that provides definitions, descriptions, examples, and antidotes for each of the White supremacy culture characteristics as they occur in organizations. With Madigan (1995) and Thompson’s (2004) conceptualizations in the foreground, we are using this chapter to ask the question, “How might APA Style reflect and further contribute to White Supremacy Culture?”
Before we move onto an deeper investigation of some of the essentials of APA Style, we encourage you to follow the link to the definitions and review them. Then, as we present the information of APA Style, note where you notice overlap. We will return to this examination at the end of the chapter.
- Perfectionism
- Perfectionistic culture
- Worship of the written word
- Only one right way
- Either/or thinking
- Concentration of power
- Power hoarding
- Paternalism
- Defensiveness
- Right to comfort
- Fear of open conflict
- Individualism
- I’m the only one
- Progress is more/bigger
- Objectivity
- Quantity over quality
- Sense of urgency
4.5 The JARS: The Core of APA Style
The JARS [Journal Article Reporting Standards; Appelbaum et al. (2018)] were born out of a concern for transparency in psychological science. When researchers present their work using these comprehensive, uniform reporting standards, it makes it easier for readers and reviewers to work their way through individual papers, compare research, and use the results in meta-analyses (American Psychological Association, 2020). Thus, the JARS provides an interconnected set of tables that list information that should be reported in prescribed sections of empirical manuscripts. The JARS does not specify in what order that the information should be presented – just that it should be available to the reader at the time they need it, and written such that does not interfere with the readability of the paper.
The JARS were first introduced in a 2008 feature in the American Psychologist (“Reporting Standards for Research in Psychology,” 2008) and were included in the 6th Edition of the Style Manual. An updated JARS, published in 2018, expanded the types of quantitative research (JARS-Quant) as well as introduced tables for qualitative (JARS-Qual)and mixed methods studies (JARS-Mixed). Chapter 3 of the 7th Edition is devoted to the JARS. It contains numerous tables, definitions, explanations, and a flowchart.
Curiously, the second chapter of the 7th Edition provides another overview of each section of an APA Style manuscript. The information provided in the second chapter has a high degree of overlap and consistency with the JARS but focuses more on formatting conventions. We encourage authors to consult both.
A third set of guidelines for authors are found in individual journals. These guidelines may have inconsistencies with APA Style. When submitting to a specific journal, it is that journal’s guidelines that likely take precedent.
Given that the JARS and Chapter 2 recommendations, should be directly consulted when drafting an APA Style paper, we will not repeat them here. We thought, however, that it might be a useful exercise to review a recently published article, mapping if and where each of the JARS elements are included. We have chosen Yu-Te Huang and Randolph C. H. Chan’s (2022), “Effects of Sexual Orientation Concealment on Well-Being Among Sexual Minorities: How and When Does Concealment Hurt?” published in the Journal of Counseling Psychology. We strongly encourage you to work along with us by accessing a copy of the JARS either in the 7th Edition or online and identifying (by highlighting) the elements in Huang and Chan’s paper
Utilization of the JARS should begin with its flowchart. Huang and Chan’s (2022) research is quantitative in nature. The flowchart indicates that all quantitative studies should start with JARS-Quant Table 1. Because the study did not involve an experimental manipulation, the write-up should also adhere to JARS-Quant Table 3. In the table below, we paraphrase the JARS instructions, provide a quick summary of if-and-how Huang and Chang addressed it, and then provide a “+”, “-”, or “+/-” designation to indicate if it was present, absent, or partially addressed.
Table 1
| JARS Element | Location in Huang and Chan (2022) | +/- |
|---|---|---|
| Title | Huang and Chan (2022) | +/- |
| Main variables and theoretical issues and their relationship | Primary IV (concealment) and DV (well-being) were named. Asking “how” and “when” suggests that mechanisms (mediation, moderation) will be evaluated | + |
| Population(s) studied | No indication that the participants were from Hong Kong | - |
| Author Note | Huang and Chan (2022) | +/- |
| Acknowledgement and explanation of special circumstances (e.g., preregistration, use of data in other publications, if primary data is used in dissertation or conference papers, sources of funding/support, potential conflicts of interest, affiliation of authors if different than author byline, contact information for corresponding author, other relevant information) | Provides ORCiDs. Identifies funding source. Addresses prior presentations, publications, conflicts of interest. Lists contact information. | + |
| Abstract (120 to 250 words) | Huang and Chan (2022) | +/- |
| Problem under investigation including primary hypotheses | Defines problem under investigation. Although not specified as such, the hypotheses are reflected in an efficient presentation of results. | + |
| Key participant characteristics | N = 737 sexual minority individuals. Lists gender and age. | + |
| Method: research design, sample size, materials used, outcome measures, data-gathering procedures | Participants recruited through LGBTQ networks for baseline and 1-year follow-up | + |
| Findings: primary statistical output | Results are narrated, but no statistical output is included | - |
| Conclusions: results plus implications or applications | Results pointed to the importance of family and loneliness | + |
| Introduction | Huang and Chan (2022) | +/- |
| Problem statement connecting to theoretical and/or practical implications | Opening paragraph provides a problem statement. Project is grounded in self-determination theory. | + |
| Succinct review of relevant scholarship – connecting to extant literature | Organized into subheadings with a distinction between identity diclosure/nondisclosure and concealment. | + |
| Hypotheses (primary and secondary), aims, and objectives, including theoretical derivation and additional planned analyses | Three hypotheses plus and exploratory question were listed. | + |
| Method | Huang and Chan (2022) | +/- |
| Inclusion and exclusion criteria | Listed in Participants section | + |
| Participant characteristics: standard demographic and topic-specific | Participants section includes summary of general (e.g., age, education) and topic-specific variables. | + |
| Sampling procedures addressing the following (if used): sampling plan, response rate, self-selection, settings and dates, participant agreements/compensation, and IRB and safety monitoring. | Procedures section describes recruitment platforms, voluntary nature, consent process. Participants section describes attrition across the two waves. | + |
| Sample size, power, and precision: intended and achieved sample size, power analysis, use of interim analyses or stopping rules | Participants section identifies how the minimum sample size was determined. | + |
| Measures and covariates: all primary and secondary measures and covariates (including those not utilized in report) | Measures section lists the variables and tools used to measure them. Preliminary analysis lists covariates (demographic variables); the tools for assessing them were not described. There is no mention of additional, unused data. | +/- |
| Data collection: methods used to collect data | Procedures indicates that an online survey platform was used and describe the invitation, consent, follow-up protocol. | + |
| Quality of measurements: Methods used to enhance quality of measurements including training and reliability of data collectors and use of multiple observations | NA since surveys collected online. | NA |
| Instrumentation: review of psychometric and biometric properties | Measures provides descriptions of the instruments used, including citations related to their psychometric properties, and study-specific internal consistency coefficients for four of the five instruments. | + |
| Masking: In experimental manipulations, describe and evaluate presence of masking techniques (if used) | NA | NA |
| Psychometrics: reliability and validity estimates for instruments within the reported study and related studies or test manuals | Measures provides descriptions of the instruments used, including citations related to their psychometric properties, and study-specific internal consistency coefficients for four of the five instruments. | + |
| Conditions and design: since this is non-experimental, it directs to JARS Table 3 | NA; a quick review of Table suggests that meeting the criteria has already been addressed | NA |
| Data diagnostics: planned data diagnostics including criteria for post-data-collection exclusion, description of managing missing data, definition and processing of statistical outliers, analyses of distributional characteristics, data transformations (if used) | Results/Preliminary Analysis reviews the screening for normality and provides descriptive and correlational results. Independent t tests and one-way ANOVAS were used to identify differences in the primary variables and in missingness as a function of demographic variables. MNAR (missing not at random) was assumed and FIML (full information maximum likelihood) was used in primary analyses. | + |
| Analytic strategy: for primary, secondary, and exploratory hypothesis; include plans to protect against experiment-wise error | There was not a separate section in the Method to first outline the analytic strategy. Rather, detailed descriptions of the analytic process were presented in the Results | +/- |
| Results | Huang and Chan (2022) | +/- |
| Participant flow: Include n of each group at each stage of study; consider including a figure | Method/Participants details the N from initial interest through the second wave. | + |
| Recruitment: Dates defining periods of recruitment and follow-up | A timeline regarding Time1 and Time 2 was provided; dates of collection were not provided. | +/- |
| Statistics and data analysis: the JARS provides detailed information about what to include regarding missing data and analysis, descriptive data, inferential statistics, and complex statistics; additionally, problems with statistical assumptions, data distributions, convergence are to be reported | Subsections in the Results organize the primary and exploratory hypotheses. While they did not review plans to to protect against experiment-wise error, they reported B weights, confidence intervals, and fit statistics. | +/- |
| Discussion | Huang and Chan (2022) | +/- |
| Support (or nonsupport) of original hypotheses: distinguish between primary, secondary, exploratory; consider implication of exploratory as it relates to error rates | Although the opening paragraphs of the Discussion summarize the findings, they do not identify them as hypotheses or exploration. | +/- |
| Similarity of results to findings and work of others | The mid-section of the Discussion compares findings to prior literature. | + |
| Interpretation of results, considering validity threats, sample size, measurement protocols | Study Limitations considers threats to internal validity and the measures that were used. | + |
| Generalizability taking into consideration target population and contextual issues | Study Limitations considers threats to external validity, particularly around self-selection into the study. | + |
| Implications for future research, program, policy | Practical Implications provide guidance to counseling psychologists when working with sexual minority clients. | + |
4.6 What the Style Manual (2020) Has to Say About…
It can be surprising to learn that the Style Manual addresses issues beyond the order, content, and conventions of a manuscript. With explicit reference to the APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct [APA Ethics Code; American Psychological Association (2017)], the very first chapter of the 7th Edition includes a review ethical, legal, and professional standards in publishing. Chapter 1 in the 7th Edition reviews the importance of ensuring the accuracy of scientific findings, protecting the rights and welfare of research participants, and protecting intellectual property rights. Given that most of these topics are covered elsewhere in this OER, we wanted to review only one issue, protecting intellectual property rights, because it addresses a sometimes sticky issue: publication credit and authorship order.
4.6.2 Writing Effectively
There are a number of popular resources for writing scholarly, scientific, and empirical papers. The content of the fourth chapter of the 7th Edition provides guidelines for achieving the hallmarks of APA Style: continuity, flow, conciseness, and clarity. The topics within Chapter 4 represent suggestions for transitioning more casual writing (e.g., wordiness, anthropomorphisms, subject-verb agreement) to be more clear, precise, and efficient.
The last section of the 7th Edition’s fourth chapter reviews broader strategies to improve writing. We highlight two of these examples. Section 4.25 recommends the vicarious strategy of reading. We find it extremely valuable to find one or more articles, from a high quality journal, that is similar or parallel to what is being written or created. After reviewing the paper for content, examine it from a meta perspective, asking the questions that are important to you. For example:
- At what breadth or specificity does the paper open?
- What heading/subheadings are used? How are transitions made?
- How are the hypotheses identified – numbered? narrated?
- Is there a format for presenting statistical output?
- What is presented in the text versus a table?
- How does the paper end (e.g., summary vs. call-to-action)?
The 7th Edition’s Chapter 4 also recommends creating an outline. A well-structured outline should guide a reader/reviewer through a paper, even if the content is missing. To demonstrate this point, we present the headings of our example article by Huang and Chan (2022). As you examine it, note how the content of the headings and subheadings in the introduction map onto the method and results.
Effects of Sexual Orientation Concealment on Well-Being Among Sexual Minorities: How and When Does Concealment Hurt?
- The Mechanisms of Sexual Orientation Concealment
- LGB-Specific Authenticity
- Loneliness
- The Moderating Effect of Inclusive Environments
- The Present Study
- Method
- Participants
- Procedure
- Measures
- Sexual Orientation Concealment
- Perceived LGBT-Friendliness
- LGB-Specific Authenticity
- Loneliness
- Well-Being
- Results
- Preliminary Analysis
- The Effect of Sexual Orientation Concealment on Well-Being
- Mediating Effects of LGB-Specific Authenticity and Loneliness
- Moderating Effects of Perceived LGBT-Friendliness
- Moderating Effects of Perceived LGBT-Friendliness of the Family (Model 2)
- Moderating Effects of Perceived LGBT-Friendliness of the Peer Networks (Model 3)
- Moderating Effects of Perceived LGBT-Friendliness of the Workplace/School (Model 4)
- Moderating Effects of Perceived LGBT-Friendliness of the Wider Society (Model 5)
- Discussion
- Practical Implications
- Study Limitations
- Conclusions
- References
In many research methods classes, tutorials, and books on writing, trainees are instructed to write an outline. In our own program graduate students are encouraged to create a “mangy cat outline,” where “some part of the outline will have more fur (details) than others.” Writers can expect to revise, update, and restructure the outline as they work through all the steps of the research process.
Elsewhere, this OER’s chapter on open science describes the value that preregistration of a research project can have on transparency of science. We also suggest that in lieu of (or in addition to) outlining the paper, completing a preregistration may also serve as a tool for collecting and organizing ideas that can be a starting place for drafting the journal article.
4.6.3 Reducing Bias
New to the 7th Edition is the content of the fifth chapter, “Bias-Free Language Guidelines.” Accompanying this chapter is a strong message that the guidelines for bias-free language (note the use of language and not just writing) will be forever-evolving. We highlight a few general guidelines:
- Call people what they call themselves (especially in qualitative or participant-informed research designs).
- Recognize that no group is monolithic; remain attentive to within-group differences. For example, There is debate about person-first language (“a child with autism”) and identity-first language (“an autistic child”).
- Get consultation and listen to the research participants.
- Accept that language changes with time; remain attentive and flexible.
- “White,” “heteronormative,” and “U.S.” is often the standard against others are judged.
- When comparisons are made, placing the socially dominant group on the left side of a graph or at the top of a table may imply these groups are the universal standard.
- In describing any population, provide a summary of relevant characteristics. It is unnecessary to collect and report all personal characteristics (particularly if they are distal to the focal topic).
- Avoid the temptation to be passive or euphemistic. Instead, describe actual differences between the target and general populations clearly and professionally.
- There are specific guidelines for level of specificity in labels/language for various populations (e.g., disability, age, gender identity, race/ethnicity/nationality, sexual orientation, SES). When writing about a topic or population, take time to look up the current guidelines, again.
The chapter had extensive and specific guidelines for reducing bias by age, disability, gender, research participants, racial and ethnic identity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and the recognition of intersectionality. In keeping with the opening theme, the guidelines continue to evolve.
4.6.4 The Rules of Style
The sixth chapter of the 7th Edition provides the guidelines that bring uniformity to papers. Among so many other things, we learn to:
- use the Oxford comma,
- use single quotation marks only within double quotation marks,
- use lowercase for diseases, theories, therapies, or statistical procedures, and
- space once after punctuation.
The chapter also includes a helpful table that provides properly formatted statistical abbreviations and symbols. Additionally, there are detailed instruction for creating tables and figures.
4.6.5 References
Chapters 8 through 11 of the 7th Edition address in-text citations and the reference list. These chapters are are probably most consulted in the Style Manual. What may be surprising is the broader information provided about (a) the degree to which material should be cited, (b) plagiarism, (c) self-plagiarism, and (d) choosing between paraphrases and direct quotations. In the era of open science, there is also a section addressing “which” version of any document should be cited when there are multiple versions (e.g., pre-print, online first, print version)available. The answer to this question is: cite the version used.
Authors of the 7th Edition have continued to provide numerous examples and variations for users to emulate. They have also invested more time in creating a reference list entry when no match is perfect. The 7th Edition indicates that the general format of the reference is: Author (Date). Title. Source.
Each element of the reference entry is associated with a question:
- Author: Who is responsible for the work?
- Date: When was the work published?
- Title: What is the work called?
- Source: Where can I retrieve the work?
Table 9.1 in the 7th Edition provides a chart for creating a reference when information is missing.
The text-citations and reference lists must be 100% consistent. If you have consistently used a reference management system (e.g., Zotero, Mendeley) and each reference entry is accurate and complete, this will happen rather magically. Even so, one of the last things we recommend is a text-cite/ref-list cross check. We open two copies of the manuscript and put them side-by-side on a computer monitor. Starting with the text (using track changes), each time we come to a reference, we put an X in front of it the reference list entry. We go through the entire document. If there are items in the reference list missing, we note and add them. If there are additional references in the reference list that we have not checked, we do a quick search to see if they are really missing, and if so, we delete them. In addition to ensuring text-cite/ref-list consistency, this type of review often reveals other issues that should be corrected prior to submission or dissemination.
4.6.6 Publication
The 12th chapter of the 7th Edition provides an overview of the publication process including preparing publication, understanding the editorial publication process, preparing the manuscript, and copyright and permission guidelines.
Especially helpful in the 12th chapter is the overview of the publication process and the descriptions of the roles of the decision-makers: the editor-in-chief, associate editors, consulting or advisory editors, and ad hoc reviewers. Also helpful is the description and options associated with the editorial adjudications: acceptance, revise-and-resubmit, and rejection.
4.7 Revisiting the Culture of APA Style
As a reader, you may correctly presume that if we have taken the time to review core elements of APA Style, that we must value them. We do. A manuscript or article that is organized predictably and contains the required information in the assigned places makes it much more efficient to evaluate and utilize. As the first author (Bikos), I have spent decades learning APA Style, and as Madigan (1995) predicted, I have inculcated many of its values. I truly enjoy reading an article that is clear, precise, and efficient. Preparing this chapter has helped me become increasingly aware, though of the liabilities of such a narrowly prescribed way of writing.
Critical consciousness requires the identification and interrogation of all the systems in which we operate – especially and including those things we love. Earlier in this chapter we encouraged the reader to review Okun’s (2021) characteristics of White Supremacy Culture and to make note of places where APA Style reflects White Supremacy Culture. Below, we have added a few notes describing our observations, especially as they relate to the publication of scholarship more broadly.
Below we have again listed the characteristics of White Supremacy Culture. This time we have added brief descriptions when we have observed overlap.
- Perfectionism
- Perfectionistic culture
- The level of negotiable detail surrounding research designs, choice of statistics and interpretation, and writing up the results – combined with the culture of peer review – means that the perfect study is never attained. While this cautiousness offers strength in the form of humility, it may also contribute to a self-deprecation and doubt that stalls works from being completed and prevents authors from moving their scientific findings into advocacy and practice.
- Worship of the written word
- The entire Style Manual is about “the written word.” For example, of the 7th Edition’s 427 pages, 310 (73%) are devoted to citing other work. Further, abundant citation of other works is expected, especially in the Introduction, Method, and Results sections. In our own writing, we have shied away from citing personal communication, online videos, and podcasts because (a) the mechanisms for citation are less clear and (b) we fear they would be viewed as less credible.
- Only one right way
- The 7th Edition provides explicit instructions for everything from the formatting of statistical symbols to the use of commas. Many of these conventions leave no room for debate; they are either “correct” or “incorrect.”
- Either/or thinking
- We are not thinking of examples of this that we observe in APA Style. With psychology’s recognition of philosophies of science including constructivist-interpretivist and critical-ideological and attention to the way that confounds and error can be introduced into a study, we do not see this as a general characteristic of the profession or APA Style.
- Perfectionistic culture
- Concentration of power
- Power hoarding
- As described in the 7th Edition’s 12th chapter, the publication process is hierarchical, with decisions relying on layers of peer reviewers and decision-makers. Additionally, power is earned and retained through the requirement to locate new studies in the context of the prior literature through the citation of prior literature. In turn, citations are directly related to impact factors and, in turn, tenure, promotion, prestige, and status. Thompson’s (2004) proposal that knowledge (i.e., scholarly products, in particular) is property, underscores this point.
- Power hoarding
- Paternalism
- Defensiveness
- Although manuscripts and correspondence about them (i.e., cover letters, editorial feedback, revisions letters) are to be written with tones that are professional, neutral, and objective, the purpose of each is to defend ones’ work. With experience, scholars become quite skilled at providing compelling defenses of their work and posturing toward “acceptance” of a peer-reviewed submission.
- Defensiveness
- Right to comfort
- Fear of open conflict
- As we noted earlier, Madigan (1995) described APA Style has one that was tentative and cautious. That is, authors hedge with hesitant language and statements that “more confirmation is needed.” Through the use of techniques like using first person (section 4.16) and an active voice (section 4.13), the 7th Edition is promoting a more direct style of writing. That said, in the publication process, peer reviewers provide their impressions to the editor, the editor summarizes the feedback and renders a decision to the author(s). The correspondence between all parties tends to be very professional and somewhat ingratiating. Combative tones are discouraged.
- Fear of open conflict
- Individualism
- I’m the only one
- Although not necessarily communicated in the Style Manual, replication studies have been avoided because they fail to make a unique contribution to the literature. As described in the chapter on open science, this has likely contributed to the replicability/reproducibility crisis, in that if replications failures had been observed sooner, then researchers could begin closer investigations into why.
- I’m the only one
- Progress is more/bigger
- Objectivity
- The precision, clarity, and efficiency goals of APA Style are intended to provide the assurance of objectivity. Even in qualitative studies, researchers provide disclosure/transparency statements to assure the reviewers and readers that they have approached their topic in a manner that is unbiased and neutral.
- Quantity over quality
- Common among the curriculum vita of academics is the enumeration of scholarly products so that their counts can be easily included in applications for promotion and tenure. Additionally, many institutions require additional data about the impact that faculty work has had; the most common being “times cited” as well as the impact factor of the journal. This latter criteria, though, is a reflection of quality.
- Sense of urgency
- Historically, the publication process has been quite slow. With competition, though, from open access journals (where the time from submission to publication can be a matter of days or weeks), we have observed top tier journals shortening the timeframe that volunteer peer reviewers are given to review and submit their reviews. We have also noted that some journals will offer “online first” access to publications and permit researchers to post preprints to institutional repositories and their own social media (e.g., ResearchGate).
- Objectivity
To summarize, our review suggests that APA Style incorporates characteristics of White Supremacy Culture. Subsequently, we might ask, “How do these serve to maintain the power structures within psychology (or academia, or scholarship)?” Although we expect there are many contexts in which APA Style facilitates the location of power in the Western, White, cis-hetero, male, the global context is particularly salient to the first author (Bikos).
International scholars, particularly those for whom English is a foreign language, are one group that face significant challenges in publishing their research – even when the science is meritorious (Gibbons, 2012). I have lived and taught internationally; co-authored papers with international colleagues; and peer-reviewed a number of manuscripts from international authors and for international journals. It is from these experiences I share first-hand observations and offer recommendations for moving forward.
In the early 2000s, my family was living and working in Ankara, Turkey. I had finished up a manuscript and was ready to submit it for publication. At the time, submitting to a U.S. journal required that multiple copies of the paper be printed on 8.5 x 11 inch (i.e., “letter sized”) paper. The international standard is A4 (8.25 x 11.75), and my searching for letter-sized paper turned up empty-handed. Our family’s assignment in Turkey was because of my partner’s position with a multinational corporation. This privilege made it possible to have several reams of paper delivered within a couple of weeks. Given that we now submit papers online, this particular barrier no longer exists. It does, though, provide a concrete example of how barriers that have nothing to do with the rationale for the study, the quality of the research design, or the readability of the final manuscript, create inequitable barriers to participate in the process.
A second observation came when a Turkish colleague asked me to proofread a paper. The editorial letter my colleague received recommended that the paper be “edited by a native speaker.” The colleague was confused because the second author of the manuscript was a well-published, White, male, Counseling Psychologist, from the U.S., who had stated that the manuscript was ready for submission. After a weekend of deep editing, I (an early career professional, at the time) emerged with a feeling of disillusionment. In this circumstance, the positionality of the co-author should have facilitated the publication process for my colleague. Yet, this esteemed scholar failed to invest the time and resources (a task well within his skill set) that would benefit them both. As my career has unfolded, the exploitative relations between U.S. scholars and international collaborators (especially LMICs [low/middle income countries]) has been well documented CITATION.
Recognizing the significant challenges to publication, International Perspectives in Psychology has prioritized disseminating research from global scholars (Gibbons, 2012). One response to that was an editorial mentoring program. Unfortunately, only three projects were completed through that program before it was deemed unsustainable (Gibbons & Carr, 2016). I served as an editorial mentor in this program. As one who embraces APA Style, it was deeply rewarding to assist authors translate their manuscripts to the language of the APA journal. This work, though, brought to life the notion that APA Style is much more than (a) sorting the information into the pre-defined categories, (b) editing the writing so that it is clear, precise, and efficient, (d) formatting tables and figures, (e) presenting the results in the prescribed ways, and (e) creating an APA Style reference list that is consistent with the text citations. As Madigan (Madigan et al., 1995) noted, APA Style is multi-layered, including the guidelines for most aspects of writing, but also conveying values and a way of thinking.
The editorial mentor role contrasts with that of the gate-keeping peer reviewer. Further, the systems used for peer review make it difficult to provide the detailed copyediting feedback that I could provide. For most journals, feedback must be written on a separate document in an enumerated, line-by-line, narration. Pointing out errors of grammar/style (particularly when they are plentiful) is time consuming because each must be described. I suspect many peer reviewers “mark up” the document as they are reviewing it. Thus, using a system that allowed this document to be included in the peer review could functon to teach APA Style.
The three recommendations that emerge from these personal examples include the following:
- We must critically examine every aspect of the publication process and ask, “How does it facilitate the dissemination of good science?” If it does not, consider its removal or restructuring.
- We must recognize that APA Style interacts with the existing power structures and can be leveraged to prevent dissemination from those who hold marginalized and minoritized identities.
- We could examine the tools and processes we use for peer review. To that end,
- Grammar, APA style, and formatting should not prevent a project that has scientific merit from being published.
- Given our current technologies, it could be relatively easy to allow peer reviewers (or perhaps a designated reviewer) to provide direct, copyediting feedback, to the author.
4.8 Suggestions for Practice, Further Learning, and/or Conversation
- Using a journal article that is of interest to you, create an outline from the headings and subheadings. Consider how well these guide the reader/reviewer through the research project.
- Audit the same journal article using the empty table provided below. Make notes of if, how, and where the article followed the JARS guidelines.
4.8.1 Empty Table for JARS Audit Activity
Table 1
| Element | Your Article | +/- |
|---|---|---|
| Title | Your Article | +/- |
| Main variables and theoretical issues and their relationship | ||
| Population(s) studied | ||
| Author Note | Your Article | +/- |
| Acknowledgement and explanation of special circumstances (e.g., preregistration, use of data in other publications, if primary data is used in dissertation or conference papers, sources of funding/support, potential conflicts of interest, affiliation of authors if different than author byline, contact information for corresponding author, other relevant information) | ||
| Abstract (120 to 250 words) | Your Article | +/- |
| Problem under investigation including primary hypotheses | ||
| Key participant characteristics | ||
| Method: including research design, sample size, materials used, outcome measures, data-gathering procedures | ||
| Findings: primary statistical output | ||
| Conclusions: results plus implications or applications | ||
| Introduction | Your Article | +/- |
| Problem statement, including theoretical and/or practical implications | ||
| Succinct review of relevant scholarship – connecting to extant literature | ||
| Hypotheses (primary and secondary), aims, and objectives, including theoretical derivation and additional planned analyses | ||
| Method | Your Article | +/- |
| Inclusion and exclusion criteria | + | |
| Participant characteristics: standard demographic and topic-specific | ||
| Sampling procedures addressing the following (if used): sampling plan, response rate, self-selection,settings and dates, participant agreements/compensation, and IRB and safety monitoring. | ||
| Sample size, power, and precision: intended and achieved sample size, power analysis, use of interim analyses or stopping rules | ||
| Measures and covariates: all primary and secondary measures and covariates (including those not utilized in report) | ||
| Data collection: methods used to collect data | ||
| Quality of measurements: Methods used to enhance quality of measurements including training and reliability of data collectors and use of multiple observations | ||
| Instrumentation: review of psychometric and biometric properties | ||
| Masking: In experimental manipulations, describe and evaluate presence of masking techniques (if used) | ||
| Psychometrics: reliability and validity estimates for instruments within the reported study and related studies or test manuals | ||
| Conditions and design: May need to consult supplemental tables | ||
| Data diagnostics: planned data diagnostics including criteria for post-data-collection exclusion, description of managing missing data, definition and processing of statistical outliers, analyses of distributional characteristics, data transformations (if used) | ||
| Analytic strategy: for primary, secondary, and exploratory hypothesis; include plans to protect against experiment-wise error | ||
| Results | Your Article | +/- |
| Participant flow: Include n of each group at each stage of study; consider including a figure | ||
| Recruitment: Dates defining periods of recruitment and follow-up | ||
| Statistics and data analysis: the JARS provides detailed information about what to include about missing data and analysis, descriptive data, inferential statistics, and complex statistics; problems with statistical assumptions, data distributions, convergence are to be reported | ||
| Discussion | Your Article | +/- |
| Support (or nonsupport) of original hypotheses: distinguish between primary, secondary, exploratory; consider implication of exploratory as it relates to error rates | ||
| Similarity of results to findings and work of others | T | |
| Interpretation of results, considering validity threats, sample size, measurement protocols | ||
| Generalizability taking into consideration target population and contextual issues | ||
| Implications for future research, program, policy |